Publications of the Prime Minister’s Office 2024:13 Besides technical incidents, the impact of hostile operations abroad may reach into Finland and spread unpredictably, even when Finland is not the primary target. The need for cross-border cooperation increases when hostile cyber operations grow and also more extensively target governments, democratic institutions, businesses and individuals. Familiarity with the operating environment, with information systems, and with their interdependencies in particular then becomes increasingly important. 3.3 Technological progress increases everyone’s responsibility for cybersecurity Breakthroughs in technology and the digitalisation of societies increase the number of information systems and services connected to the Internet, thereby making society increasingly vulnerable and susceptible to cyber incidents. The number of devices connected to the global public information network is expected to grow by the billions before the end of 2030. The causes of technological incidents include human error in software development and related supply chains, and intentional vulnerabilities, such as security backdoors that allow criminals and state-sponsored operators to access information systems. Rapid progress in emerging and disruptive technologies, such as artificial intelligence, quantum computing, cloud services, 6G technology and satellite technologies, creates challenges for cybersecurity. Regulation can promote the development of secure technology. Even as security measures are being implemented, attackers are also developing new ways to circumvent them. 3.4 International cooperation strengthens Finnish cybersecurity While NATO membership strengthens Finland’s security and defence, it also imposes new challenges and obligations. The deterrence effect of NATO membership may lead to an increasing shift in the focus of hostile operations from traditional threats to the cyber domain where perpetrators may more plausibly deny involvement. Technological progress, data-driven systems, international collaboration and analysis of the geopolitical connections of cyber operations nevertheless provide better prospects of attribution to state-sponsored operators in particular. 14