and exploitation of children in the travel and tourism industries. Both men and women participate in child exploitation, although males constitute the majority of perpetrators in child abuse. Male child sexual abuse material-users and producers are, most commonly, adults in the range of 25 to 40 years of age. Both men and women may engage in cyberstalking and gender does not constitute a prominent feature in the profile of cyberbullies. Cyberbullying is especially prominent amongst children aged approximately 10 to 13 years. Though less common, some adults may also engage in cyberbullying of children. Child sexual abuse material offenders can have comparatively high levels of education, and this may correlate to offenders’ comfort with and sophistication in the use of technology. Both online and offline abusers may be more likely to have themselves experienced physical and sexual abuse than the general population. Groups of perpetrators constituting organized criminal groups are active in the area of online child abuse, most commonly through the production and distribution of child sexual abuse material and commercial sexual exploitation of children. The structure of such groups can consist of Internetbased social networks of actors who collaborate in both commercial and non-commercial online trading of child sexual abuse material. III.  Combating the problem International law increasingly recognizes that children deserve special protection. A number of international legal instruments require that States take measures to protect children from abuse and exploitation, as well as to engage in international cooperation in the investigation and prosecution of child abuse and exploitation crimes. States vary considerably in approaches to addressing forms of child abuse and exploitation. While many States criminalize acts such as production of child sexual abuse material, they may differ with respect to elements of the crime and definitions of “child”. Some countries have enacted laws that are specific to the commission of child exploitation offences using ICTs, while other States rely on general criminal laws against abuse and exploitation. In some countries, there may be little or no legal basis for police to take action against child abusers and exploiters if the victim has already reached the legal age of consent, even though the child is still under 18 years of age. Most jurisdictions set the age of consent for sexual activity below 18 years of age, with the average ranging from 13 to 16 years. Tools and mechanisms for international cooperation include mutual legal assistance treaties, direct law enforcement cooperation, multi-agency partnerships, forums for information-sharing and informal direct law enforcement cooperation. Significant challenges nevertheless still exist in achieving effective international cooperation regarding online investigations and electronic evidence in criminal matters. Specific tools can be employed for detection and investigation, such as the use of digital forensic techniques, automated search, image analysis and image databases, data mining and analytics. The private sector is also a key actor in the prevention of such crimes. Electronic service providers may engage in this respect through varying degrees of self-regulation, including by Internet service providers, self-monitoring by travel and tourism companies and the creation of financial coalitions. Parents, guardians, child educators and civil society are a further vital component in combating the problem, including in supporting children in understanding and handling online risks, the “flagging” of certain material online, the creation of telephone hotlines for reporting, and contributions towards education and psycho-social methods of prevention. Opportunities to enhance the fight against ICT-facilitated child abuse and exploitation In enhancing the fight against ICT-facilitated child abuse and exploitation, governments and national authorities may focus on a child protection approach that fully respects human rights; on ensuring that legislation keeps pace with technological innovation; on recruiting, training and maintaining specialized personnel; on gaining access to state-of-the-art technological resources; developing effective mechanisms for accessing third party data and conducting undercover investigations that are consistent with the rule of law; as well as developing policyguidance on harmful conduct committed by youth. The formulation of policies in this area is best based on a multidisciplinary approach that draws on research findings and best practices from social science, legal policy and public policy. xi