describe communications made by adults through the use of ICTs for the purpose of sexually abusing or exploiting minors. “Cyberharassment” refers to the intimidation, repeated or otherwise, of one individual by another or by a group, perpetrated through or utilizing electronic means. “Cyberbullying” encompasses the use of ICTs to harm a victim or victims in deliberate, repeated, and hostile ways. “Cyberstalking” is commonly understood as a course of action that involves more than one incident perpetrated through or utilizing electronic means that causes distress, fear or alarm. “Exposure to harmful online content” pertains to situations where a child accidentally or intentionally views pornographic or other content that is judged to be harmful to their development, sexual or otherwise. II.  Evaluating the problem Effects of information and communication technologies on common forms of child abuse and exploitation Potential offenders are able to gain enhanced access to victims and to child sexual abuse material through the use of ICTs, which increase their pool of potential victims, offer the opportunity of creating false identities, and facilitate the transmission of harmful content to children. Human traffickers may also recruit new victims, including children, and market child sex tourism through the use of ICTs. ICTs can deliver increased profits for criminal enterprises by markedly reducing the costs of production and distribution of child sexual abuse material. Human traffickers may also carry out their activities primarily, or even exclusively, via mobile phone. The use of mobile phones and the Internet further assists offenders in hiding their identities and obfuscating activities, thus reducing risk of detection. Increased levels of harm and re-victimization can occur through “layering” of crimes such as, for instance, when child sexual abuse material is produced, and then distributed and redistributed online. In addition, cyberbullies may use public websites and social media to broaden their audience and increase the impact on victims. Ever-increasing levels of violence coupled with the continuously decreasing age of victims in child sexual abuse material have been observed. Increasingly large amounts of x readily available online child sexual abuse material also serve to desensitize viewers, resulting in a demand for ever more extreme material. The use of ICTs affords unprecedented provision of social affirmation for offenders. Readily available child sexual abuse material online may create the false impression of social acceptability. Online communities can also provide forums for sharing strategies to gain access to victims and to evade law enforcement. New forms of child abuse and exploitation Made-to-order child sexual abuse material can be linked with organized criminal group activities and is a significant and emerging threat. The increasing demand for new images appears to be reflected in escalating prices for such material. In the context of child abuse and exploitation, self-­ generated content comprises images and videos that are ­produced by and feature children. This includes conduct such as “sexting”, a form of self-generated sexually explicit content. Mass availability of ICTs has increased the production of and loss of control over self-generated content. As Internet access proliferates and becomes increasingly affordable, perpetrators can broadcast live sex abuse of children. Live images of abuse may also be recorded for future distribution in order to generate maximum profit. Victimization risk factors Girls account for the majority of victims of child abuse and exploitation, although boys are increasingly at risk as well. Prior abuse and family dysfunction may elevate the risk of victimization, particularly for commercial sexual exploitation of children. Poverty and migration and social isolation can also have negative repercussions on patterns of commercial sexual exploitation of children. Very young children are increasingly victimized in child sexual abuse material and child sex trafficking and exploitation. Adolescents face the highest risk of cyberenticement, exposure to harmful material and cyberbullying. Children who engage in risky online behaviour and inattention to online safety and privacy face a higher risk of exploitation, cyberenticement, solicitation or grooming. Profile of offenders The motivations of offenders for committing child sex abuse vary. Many possessors of child sexual abuse material are preferential child sex offenders, or paedophiles. Preferential sex offence conduct is also linked to the commercial sexual abuse