Another problem is a lack of transparency regarding cyberattacks. Some organizations do not report security incidents. This makes it difficult to know the magnitude of the attacks in Africa and to find solutions. Therefore, a trusted ecosystem should be fostered so that everyone (including operators and end users) can learn from cyber incidents. Established practices on responsible disclosure and vulnerability disclosure coordination allow for the provision of information in ways that will not expose infrastructure to further risk, are also important. • Measures to Prevent and Mitigate the Risk of Cyberattack Information sharing, effective legislation and enforcement, and recognized best practices were identified as important measures for preventing and mitigating the risk of cyberattacks. Information sharing is critical in capacity building, identifying threats, and in developing best practices (whether technical, policy, legal, economic, etc.). Ensuring the right practices are in place to enable relevant stakeholders to share information responsibly is equally important. There are many useful avenues for sharing expertise, including the African Network Operators Group (AfNOG) and the African Peering and Interconnection Forum (AfPIF). Workshops are helpful at the local level to reach the broader operators community. Robust legislation and enforcement help deter cybercrime, both locally and internationally. Legal and regulatory frameworks from other continents around the world provide useful starting points for best practices in the African context. National guidelines to measure the effectiveness of security policies, as well as any unintended consequences, should be developed. Best practices provide stakeholders with relevant and current information on security methods and threats. Best practices can promote effective network security monitoring activities and encourage operators and service providers to perform and share regular risk analyses. • Key stakeholders to improve the security of Internet infrastructure in Africa Capacity needs to be developed in cyber security for all stakeholders in Africa. Among them are governments, the private sector, civil society, academia, and the technical community. 2.2 Core Elements of Internet Infrastructure Based on the results of the panel discussion, interviews with professionals, and the literature review, the core elements of Internet infrastructure can be broadly categorized into six types: protocols and services, software and hardware, network interconnection, communication infrastructure, information, and human resources. a. Protocols and Services A protocol is a standard for computer systems. Protocols allow meaningful communication between different computer systems, making them valuable assets in Internet infrastructure. Protocols can be divided into the Datalink, Internet, Transport, and Application layers. A service, in the context of Internet infrastructure, refers to an abstract combination of functionalities utilizing other assets to fulfil a defined task. Without services, the Internet would be of little use. Services can be categorized as Essential Addressing (which is divided into Link Layer addressing, IP addressing, Transport Protocol addressing, and DNS), Routing, Applications (such as electronic mail or file transfer), and Security Services. Attackers will exploit vulnerabilities in services and protocols, so it is important to implement the latest versions of corresponding standards to ensure the greatest security. b. Software and Hardware In the context of core Internet infrastructure, software can be broadly categorized as operating systems, device drivers, firmware, and executable programs. Software products have several security vulnerabilities that have to be addressed through regular patching and other methods. internetsociety.org Internet Infrastructure Security Guidelines for Africa 11