cyber activity ranging from the broad category of adversary through to specific states and individuals. Australia has a well-developed process to guide and inform a decision by the Australian Government to make a public or private attribution disclosure. This process includes, but is not limited to, considering all relevant information, including the larger context of the event, the challenges of attribution in the ICT environment and the nature and extent of the consequences. The Australian Government has a comprehensive suite of strategic response options to deter and respond to unacceptable behaviour in cyberspace, encompassing diplomatic, economic, legal and law enforcement, defencebased, and private sector measures. To deepen common understandings, Australia has published information detailing how it considers cyber incidents and response options should be assessed under international law (see, e.g.: Australia’s position on how international law applies to state conduct in cyberspace), including:   In determining whether a cyber attack, or any other cyber activity, constitutes a use of force, states should consider whether the activity's scale and effects are comparable to traditional kinetic operations that rise to the level of use of force under international law. This involves a consideration of the intended or reasonably expected direct and indirect consequences of the cyber attack, including for example whether the cyber activity could reasonably be expected to cause serious or extensive ('scale') damage or destruction ('effects') to life, or injury or death to persons, or result in damage to the victim state's objects, critical infrastructure and/or functioning. When responding to a use of force, Australia considers that the thresholds and limitations governing the exercise of self-defence under Article 51 of the UN Charter apply in respect of cyber operations that constitute an armed attack and in respect of acts of self-defence that are carried out by cyber means. Thus if a cyber operation – alone or in combination with a physical operation – results in, or presents an imminent threat of, damage equivalent to a traditional armed attack, then the inherent right to self-defence is engaged (see, eg: 2019 International Law Supplement). Australia has also made public statements explaining its position on the concept of imminence and the right of self-defence in the context of national security threats that have evolved as a result of technological advances. www.dfat.gov.au/cyberaffairs esafety.gov.au/parents