Figure I.  Cybercrime act descriptions Acts against the confidentiality, integrity and availability of computer data or systems ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ Illegal access to a computer system Illegal access, interception or acquisition of computer data Illegal interference with a computer system or computer data Production, distribution or possession of computer misuse tools ∙∙ Breach of privacy or data protection measures Computer-related acts for personal or financial gain or harm ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙∙ Computer-related fraud or forgery Computer-related identity offences Computer-related copyright or trademark offences Sending or controlling the sending of Spam Computer-related acts causing personal harm Computer-related solicitation of “grooming” of children Computer content-related acts ∙∙ Computer-related acts involving hate speech ∙∙ Computer-related production, distribution or possession of child pornography ∙∙ Computer-related acts in support of terrorism offences Source: Comprehensive Study on Cybercrime, 2013. Three of these act descriptions have particular relevance for the consideration of child abuse and exploitation: computer-related acts causing personal harm; computer­ related solicitation or “grooming” of children; and computerrelated production, distribution and possession of child pornography. These acts are by no means exhaustive of the type of offences for which children may fall victim through ICT, but they do provide a good starting point for discussion. The first two acts fall into the category of “computer-related acts for personal or financial gain or harm” and the third under “computer content-related acts”. “Computer-related acts for personal or financial gain or harm” refer to “acts for which the use of a computer system is inherent to the modus operandi” and in which the object of the offence may be regarded as the individual targeted, such as through the use of a computer system to harass, bully, threaten, stalk or to cause fear or intimidation of an individual, or “grooming” of a child. As noted in the Cybercrime Study, one challenge is that this category may include a broad range of otherwise offline crimes, when committed with the use or help of a computer system.26 The category of “computer ­content-related acts” concerns computer content—the words, images, sounds and representations transmitted or stored by computer systems, including the Internet. The material offence object in content-related offences is often a person, an identifiable group of persons, or a widely held value or belief. Similar to the category of computer-related acts for personal or financial gain or harm, these acts could, in principle, be committed offline, as well as through the use of computer systems.27 Within both broad categories of acts, clear legislation and definitions are key for providing w ­ ell-defined criminalization of conduct especially related to ICT-facilitated child abuse and exploitation. In particular, some courses of conduct may cut across categories, such as when a child is both “groomed” online and persuaded to send personal images of a sexual nature. The remainder of the study is divided into four parts. Chapter I builds on the above by identifying and defining key terms in analysing the problem of ICT-facilitated child abuse and exploitation. It describes the most common types and forms of related behaviour, utilizing terminology that seeks to provide an effective description of relevant phenomena, practices and acts, which may or may not be currently criminalized in all jurisdictions. Chapter II evaluates the effects of ICTs on common and new forms of child abuse and exploitation, and describes how the use of information and communication technologies in the commission of offences can increase the levels of harm to victims. Chapter II also provides a brief overview of the main risk factors for victims as well as potential offender profiles. It briefly describes organized groups of offenders and the role of organized criminal networks in child abuse and exploitation. Chapter III discusses efforts at combating the problem of ICT-facilitated child abuse and exploitation. It briefly explores national, regional and international efforts in preventing and suppressing the main forms of ICT-facilitated child abuse and exploitation. Chapter III also provides an overview of different practices and policies used to combat ICT-facilitated child sexual abuse and exploitation and identifies opportunities to enhance the fight against these crimes. 26 27 UNODC, 2013. Pp. 17-18. UNODC, 2013. Pp. 18-19. 4 STUDY ON THE EFFECTS OF NEW INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES ON THE ABUSE AND EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN