Internet every day.10 Similarly, in 2011, the Internet usage rate of children aged 3 to 5 in South Korea was at 66 per cent.11 In Europe, 9 to 16-year-olds use the Internet for between one and five hours per day, while in Bahrain, the average daily time of Internet use ranges between two and a half and three and a half hours per day. Nonetheless, disparities in Internet access remain. Recent data shows, for example, that South African minors access the Internet more infrequently and for comparatively shorter periods of time than in developed countries.12 Bridging the still-existing digital divide between the developed and developing world by promoting free and equitable access to the Internet is a policy priority for the United Nations and its Member States.13 In addition to bringing social, educational, economic and cultural benefits, however, the expansion of availability and accessibility of ICTs has also created a number of threats to the safety of individuals and especially of children, who are particularly vulnerable to ICT-facilitated abuse and exploitation.14 The ongoing proliferation of broadband Internet access and mobile phones plays a pivotal role in facilitating online child abuse as mobile devices greatly widen the range of contacts, including strangers or Internet-only contacts, that children encounter, in an environment where possibilities for parental supervision and monitoring of activities can be significantly restricted.15 Once online, children and adolescents engage in a broad spectrum of activities in areas ranging from gaming and entertainment to education and social interaction. In particular, social networking, which enables users to post and exchange personal information, photos and videos, build networks of friends, and maintain high levels of interaction and information exchange on every aspect of daily life, is prevalent among young Internet users. Data from 2011 indicate that 73 per cent of teenagers in the United States, and 59 per cent of 9 to 16-year-olds in the European Union had a social networking profile, while an estimated 12 per cent of the 37 million Indian, and approximately 13 per cent of the 29 million Brazilian Facebook-users were between 13 and 17 years of age.16 While increased and more frequent usage of ICTs entails a heightened risk of infringements on privacy and safety for all users, children are at particular risk, as they often do not fully understand the threats associated with these technologies, especially when it comes to sharing of personal information, photos or videos.17 A 2008 study in the United States showed, for instance, that one in five American adolescents between the ages of 13 and 19 had sent or posted nude or semi-nude pictures of themselves online.18 Young people frequently do not understand or are not sufficiently aware that they effectively waive control over such images once shared.19 The problem is aggravated by the fact that parents and other caregivers often struggle with a lack of technological sophistication, making it difficult for them to make use of existing safety and privacy tools to protect their children and supervise their online activities. Even where parents have adequate technological knowledge, portable devices present a particular challenge to successful supervision and protection. Research in Europe, for example, has found that 49 per cent of children access the Internet from their bedrooms and 33 per cent use mobile devices.20 A recent threat assessment concerning child exploitation and sexual exploitation and abuse conducted by the United Kingdom Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre (CEOP) concluded that “direct parental supervision of children’s Internet use is increasingly unfeasible.”21 Advances in ICTs also facilitate criminal collaboration and communication across jurisdictions and borders with regard to the commission of acts of child abuse and exploitation. Law enforcement agencies often lack the human and financial resources, as well as technical capacity and appropriate tools to thoroughly and effectively investigate such transnational crimes. Whereas criminals can quickly invent, implement See e.g. UNICEF, 2011. P. 4. See e.g. UNICEF, 2011. P. 5. 18 National Campaign to Prevent Teen and Un-planned Pregnancy, 2008. Sex and Tech: Results of a Survey of Teens and Young Adults. Available at: www.thenationalcampaign.org/ SEXTECH/PDF/SexTech_Summary.pdf; see also UNICEF, 2011. P. 5. 19 Quayle, E., 2013. Commentary at the Informal Expert Group Meeting on the Effects of Information and Communication Technologies on the Abuse and Exploitation of Children. Vienna. September 23, 2013 through September 26, 2013. 20 Livingstone, S., Haddon, L., Görzig A., Ólafsson, K., 2011. EU Kids II. P. 2; see also CEOP, 2013. Paragraph 52. 21 CEOP, 2013. Paragraph 52; see also UNICEF, 2011. Pp. 7-8. 16 17 Gutnick A., et al., 2011. Always Connected: The New Digital Media Habits of Young Children. Pp. 14-18. Available at http://www. joanganzcooneycenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/ jgcc_alwaysconnected.pdf. 11 http://www.statista.com/statistics/226730/ Internet-usage-of-young-children-in-south-korea-since-2006/. 12 UNICEF, 2011. Pp. 3-4; see also Michelet, I., 2003. P. 13. 13 Ruggie, J., Dossal, A., 2000. Towards Bridging the Digital Divide. A Discussion Paper. 14 UNICEF, 2011. P. 3. 15 UNICEF, 2011. P. 4. 10 2 STUDY ON THE EFFECTS OF NEW INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES ON THE ABUSE AND EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN