E/CN.15/2014/CRP.1 and details of such overlap remains the subject of significant debate,187 researchers have documented substantial overlap among criminal convict populations.188 Specifically, in one long-term study of offenders convicted for non-contact child sexual abuse material crimes, 85 per cent eventually disclosed that they also had committed undetected contact abuse.189 Other research suggests that investigating cases of child sexual abuse material possession often leads to arrests for child sexual abuse, corroborating the findings of self-disclosure research.190 Conversely, many perpetrators arrested for contact offenses are found to possess significant collections of child sexual abuse material.191 Research also indicates that contact offenders have longer criminal records,192 more often have a history of child sexual abuse, and tend to use emotionally charged coping strategies when under stress.193 While contact offenders report high levels of previous sexual abuse, non-contact offenders report a more complex history of childhood problems associated with early childhood sexual experience and sequentially abusive adult sexual experience.194 One recent review concluded, for example, that: “[i]t is evident that there are differences between Internet and contact offenders related to demographic characteristics such as age, level of education, and measure of intelligence as well as psychological variables”.195 Most possessors of child sexual abuse material are preferential child sex offenders, or paedophiles,196 who use the material to nurture their sexual fantasies about children or as proof of their conquests in offender communities.197 Preferential child sex offense conduct is also linked to the commercial sexual abuse and exploitation of children in the travel and tourism industries.198 In a different category of offenders, families may exploit their own or other local children by producing sexual abuse material solely for profit. In some cases, a child may be made to stand naked in front of a web cam, and the family member may not even consider such behaviour to constitute sexual abuse or harm to the child.199 Gender Whilst both men and women may participate in child exploitation, male perpetrators tend to constitute the majority of offenders with regard to child sexual abuse material-related conduct, cyber-enticement, and cyber-stalking. Conversely, certain forms of exploitation including trafficking and cyber-bullying can have a high prevalence of female perpetrators. Research suggests that offenders in child sexual abuse material-related conduct are most commonly adult men, operating alone.200 A recent study on child sexual abuse material-consumption found, however, that 5.5 per cent of the __________________ 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 30 See generally Neutze, J., et. al, 2010. Predictors of child porngraphy offenses and child sexual abuse in a community sample of paedophiles and hebophiles. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment 22(4):3-24. Seto, M., 2010. Child Pornography Use and Internet Solicitation in the Diagnosis of Pedophilia. Archive of Sexual Behaviour 39:591–593. Bourke M. L., Hernandez, A., 2009. Wolak J., Finkelhor, D., Mitchell, K.J., Ybarra, M.L., 2008. UN Human Rights Council, 2009. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child sex abuse material [A/HRC/12/23]. Paragraph 42. Caution must be exercised in interpreting conviction data. Overall reporting rates for child abuse are estimated at approximately one-third for girls and one quarter for boys. Only 5 per cent of victims in a 2011 United Kingdom study reported making a formal complaint to police. From this small percentage of reported victimization, only 7 per cent result in criminal convictions. Persons convicted thus correspond to a small, and not-necessarily representative sample of the whole population of sexual abusers; Joseph Sullivan, 2013. Commentary at the Informal Expert Group Meeting on the Effects of Information and Communication Technologies on the Abuse and Exploitation of Children. Vienna. September 23, 2013 through September 26, 2013. Howitt, D, Sheldon, K., 2007. Pp. 139-172 Howitt, D.,Sheldon, K., 2007. Pp. 123-160. Quayle, E., Sinclair, R., An introduction to the problem. In Quayle, E., Ribisl, K. (eds.), 2012. Understanding and Preventing Online Sexual Exploitation of Children. P. 7. Seto, M. C., 2010. The Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University, 2008. P. 37. ECPAT. End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography & Trafficking of Children for Sexual Purposes. Available at: http://www.ecpat.net/faqs#child-sex-tourism. See e.g. CEOP, 2013. Paragraph 24. V.14-03040