E/CN.15/2014/CRP.1 social cues that would normally alert youth to inappropriate advances. Further, online gamers can manipulate their social status by surrounding themselves with virtual friends. Offenders may use this phenomenon to their advantage by offering to help children with their gaming performance in exchange for online or offline sexual encounters, or by initiating a relationship for the purposes of committing such acts in the future. Social isolation Social isolation can have negative repercussions on children’s online behaviour, as well as on their propensity to seek help when problems arise. Research on socially isolated young people suggests that they may face an increased risk of certain forms of exploitation, as well as bullying.171 Rejected or neglected by real-life friends, children who feel isolated may turn to online friends as a substitute. Where social networking sites count and report the number of friends that each user has amassed, children may be motivated to add online friends, even if they are effectively strangers.172 Children may publicly share information with groups of online friends, including potential perpetrators. In some cases, this may include inappropriate or sexually explicit material, with a view to gaining acceptance and attention. Profile of Offenders As with descriptions of risk factors for victimization, information on offender profiles corresponds only to broad results from studies of cohorts of identified offenders. Offender ‘profiles’ may contain many descriptor elements, including age, sex, socio-economic background, nationality, motivation, and past-victimization. Whilst factors such as age and social status, offending patterns, and links with ‘offline’ offending, may be used to generate a broad picture of offender characteristics,173 it is also clear that there is no single ‘typical’ offender. This section reviews relationships between offending behaviour and motivation, gender, age, and technological awareness, as well as the involvement of organized criminal groups in ICT-facilitated abuse and exploitation of children. General profile and motivations of offenders Motives for committing child sex abuse and viewing child sexual abuse material vary. Research suggest that the desire for sexual gratification serves as driving motivation for most child sexual abuse material consumers. Whilst many ‘lone’ individuals possess and view such material, some offenders may also enjoy the camaraderie they experience through online communities.174 Personality studies of child sexual abuse material consumers indicate a “rejecting and submissive interpersonal style, which preclude[s] effective interaction with others”.175 Some child sexual abuse material offenders may have low emotional stability, and/or exhibit relatively high levels of depression.176 The concept of internet addiction disorder177 – understood as an overuse of the Internet that is so excessive as to interfere with the ability to function and participate in daily life – may also be applicable in the case of some child sexual abuse material offenders.178 Offenders may use the concept of addiction to ease their sense of guilt about the offending behaviour. Research also characterizes a dichotomy of possible social motivations among child sexual abuse material offenders. One set of offenders consists of socially isolated persons with intimacy deficits who try to make up for __________________ 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 28 Schwartz, D., Proctor, L. J, Chien, D. H. The Aggressive Victim of Bullying: Emotional and Behavioural Dysregulation as a Pathway to Victimization by Peers. In Juvonen, J.,Graham, S. (eds.), 2001. Peer Harassment in School: The Plight of the Vulnerable and Victimized. Pp. 47-174. See Choo, K. R., 2009. Pp. 7-11. UNODC, 2013. Comprehensive Study on Cybercrime. P.43-44. Quayle, E., Taylor, M., 2002. Child pornography and the internet: perpetuating a cycle of abuse. Deviant Behaviour: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 23:331-361. Laulik, S., Allam, J., Sheridan, L., 2007. An investigation into maladaptive personality functioning in Internet sex offenders. Psychology, Crime & Law 13:531. See ibid. See e.g. Young, K. S., 1998. Internet Addiction: The Emergence of a New Clinical Disorder. CyberPsychology and Behaviour 1237-244; Grundner, T. M., 2000. The Skinner Box Effect: Sexual Addiction and Online Pornography; Greenfield, D., 2010. Clinical Treatment of Internet and Digitally-enabled Compulsive Behaviour. Byun, S., et al., 2009. Internet Addiction. CyberPsychology & Behaviour 12: 203–204. V.14-03040