A/68/156/Add.1 member States to develop their own national cyber security strategies and join the OAS Secure Hemispheric Network of Cyber Security Incident-Response Teams. Since 2012, Canada and other participating States of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) have worked to develop confidenceand security-building measures to reduce the risks of misperception, escalation and conflict that may stem from the use of information and communications technologies. Canada is also actively participating in international initiatives to combat cyber crime in a number of forums, including the Group of Eight, the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and OAS. Canada also participated in the most recent United Nations Group of Governmental Experts on Developments in the Field of Information and Telecommunications in the Context of International Security (2012-13). 2. International concepts Existing treaty and customary international law is applicable to the use of information and communications technologies by States, and is essential to maintaining peace and stability, and promoting an open, secure, peaceful and accessible information and communications technology environment. Among existing international law relevant to cyberspace are the Charter of the United Nations, international human rights law and international humanitarian law. In the most recent report of the United Nations Group of Governmental Experts, Canada was pleased to see a clear affirmation by States of the applicability of international law in cyberspace as the cornerstone for norms and principles for responsible State behaviour. Canada also believes that addressing the security of information and communications technologies must go hand-in-hand with respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, including the right to hold opinions without interference, as well as the rights to freedom of expression, association and assembly, and respect for privacy. The right to freedom of expression is set out in both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. These instruments provide that the same rights that people have offline must also be protected online, in particular freedom of expression, which is applicable regardless of frontiers and through any media of one’s choice. 3. Possible measures to strengthen information security globally Canada is working closely with international partners, including major multilateral organizations and private sector associations, to strengthen the information security of the networks upon which Canada’s economic prosperity and security rely. Canada is also enhancing collaboration and sharing information with some of its key partners and within multilateral organizations on cyber security. Canada has developed a new process to coordinate a national response to major cyber incidents and engage owners and operators of its critical infrastructure to develop and implement their own cyber security strategy. There is widespread interest by other countries to enhance cyber security and prevent cyber crime. The key international instrument that deals specifically with cyber crime is the Council of Europe’s Convention on Cybercrime, which Canada 4/24 13-47545