relate to matters like internet governance, international peace and security, fighting cybercrime and protecting fundamental rights in cyberspace, can be technical or policy-related, and they can be voluntary or legally binding. The relevant ministries – foreign affairs, economic affairs, security & justice, the interior & kingdom relations, and defence – make an active contribution to these efforts. The Public Prosecution Service, the police, the intelligence and security services, Defence Cyber Command and the NCSC are closely involved. At the 2015 Global Conference on CyberSpace (GCCS), a Cyber Task Force based at the foreign ministry was launched to oversee diplomatic efforts in the digital domain. There is also a special envoy for international cyber policy, who represents the Netherlands abroad in matters related to cybersecurity. Parallel to its integrated approach to transnational crises, the Netherlands also uses diplomacy to achieve a variety of ends, including the creation of a normative framework for regulating cyber operations between states. This is necessary over the long term in order to devise systematic solutions. However, the development of this normative framework is a gradual process, and there are limits in terms of implementation and compliance. Moreover, this will not address all the threats facing the Netherlands, particularly in the short term. In light of this, we also need to develop capabilities to defend our security. 3.2 Cyber Defence & Security For the Netherlands, maintaining the security of its networks in the face of threats posed by internationally operating criminals and by state and non-state actors is paramount. To protect its national security from foreign threats, the Netherlands is developing robust capabilities based on the objectives of early detection, active defence and, if necessary, intervention. The Netherlands seeks to build up these capabilities in an international context as well, with due regard for Dutch interests. The Netherlands must retain sufficient scope to carry out lawful, necessary and proportional cyber operations. As with the deployment of other types of force, when it comes to the deployment of offensive cyber capabilities, the Netherlands believes in exercising extreme restraint and only taking action if there is an adequate basis for such action in national or international law. This is also in line with NATO policy. Within NATO the government focuses on boosting the alliance’s deterrence and collective defence. Because military, intelligence, investigative and cybersecurity capabilities are, in the 21st century, inextricably linked to internal and external networks, the Netherlands works both independently and with allies to develop offensive and defensive operational capabilities for a growing, secure and reliable cyber ecosystem. The DCC, NCSC, the intelligence and security services and other agencies are responsible for these efforts. 3.3 Capacity building The digital gap between technologically advanced and less advanced countries must be closed so that all countries can profit from the opportunities created by global digitalisation. Capacity building within cyberspace is therefore vital. In the conclusions on cyber diplomacy issued by the Council of the European Union in 2015, cyber capacity building in non-member countries is described as a strategic building block of the evolving cyber diplomacy efforts of the EU towards the promotion and protection of human rights, rule of law, security, growth and development. In a broader international context, too, such as the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) and the 2015 report by the UN Group of Governmental Experts (UNGGE), there is a growing focus on capacity building. In the light of these developments the Netherlands launched the Global Forum on Cyber Expertise (GFCE) during the 2015 GCCS in The Hague. The establishment of the GFCE galvanised capacity building in the areas of cybercrime-fighting, cybersecurity, data protection and e-governance. The GFCE is a pragmatic, strategic and flexible platform for policymakers, professionals and experts from various countries, companies and international organisations. A variety of parties work together within the GFCE: government ministries, researchers, NGOs and the technology community. The Netherlands not only encourages other AVT17/BZ122203 7