At international level, the government pursues an integrated approach to cybersecurity. It does so through a combination of developing domestic cybersecurity strategies, working towards technologically neutral European legislation and promoting public-private partnership. Particular attention is paid to vital sectors and infrastructure and to the promotion of a level playing field. These efforts mainly take place within the EU, but the focus is also increasingly widening to include other bilateral and multilateral spheres. The entry into force of the NIS Directive is a major step forward, and the Netherlands has been one of its chief advocates. The ‘Cooperation Group’ was set up in order to support and facilitate strategic cooperation and information-sharing between EU member states, to foster trust and to create a high joint level of security for network and information systems in the Union. It is the government’s aim to use its involvement in this group to oversee, at strategic level, the enhancement of digital security for Europe. The Commission’s recent Communication on the enhancement of cybersecurity systems and the cybersecurity sector is a major milestone for European cooperation. At both strategic and political level the Netherlands actively works to raise awareness, cultivate mutual understanding and assign responsibility. 4.3.2 Operational activities and cooperation on cybersecurity At international level, the Netherlands works closely with its partners on the operational front. Collaborating on operational issues contributes to a robust exchange of information and knowledge, incident management, resilience and recovery capabilities. This cooperation mainly takes place through established networks, such as the Computer Security Incident Response Teams (CSIRTs) or CERTs. The Dutch intelligence and security services also have a part to play on this front, in both bilateral and multilateral settings. The Netherlands is a prominent actor in this international arena. Operational collaboration also benefits security, freedom and social growth in both the private and public domain. To promote trust and operational collaboration between CSIRTs within the EU, a CSIRT network was established with the entry into force of the NIS Directive. The Netherlands is making a particular effort to help put this network into operation and make it a success. 4.3.3 Stimulating research on cybersecurity The National Cyber Security Research Agenda (NCSRA) serves as the basis for short- and longterm research, both domestically and internationally. The issues in question dovetail with NCSS 2; both possess the overarching goal of expanding cybersecurity knowledge and know-how and investing in ICT innovation to achieve our cybersecurity objectives. In this connection, collaborative cybersecurity research is also undertaken by the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) and the US Department of Homeland Security (DHS). 4.4 Effective efforts to stop cybercrime Cybercriminals are employing ever more advanced methods and becoming more organised. As a result, the amount of damage caused by their actions is growing. These developments are magnified by the relatively low cost and risk of committing acts of crime and espionage in cyberspace. The costs and risks associated with conventional – physical – forms of crime are often higher and the proceeds lower. The government has a duty to uphold the rule of law, in both the real and virtual worlds. The customary system of international legal assistance is very slow, however, in comparison to the methods used by criminals to avoid detection (e.g. re-routing their activities through different countries and rapidly moving their data from one country to the next). Moreover, criminals will often make a point of choosing to operate from countries where legislation and/or capabilities are insufficient to tackle cybercrime. As a result there is a danger that cyberspace could become a haven for ‘tech savvy’ criminals. To promote international investigative efforts in cyberspace, the Netherlands is working to step up international cooperation and strengthen international legal frameworks. The Netherlands put these matters on the agenda of the 2015 GCCS and raised them AVT17/BZ122203 11