A/68/98 sophisticated malicious tools and techniques, such as bot-nets, by States or non-State actors may further increase the risk of mistaken attribution and unintended escalation. The absence of common understandings on acceptable State behaviour with regard to the use of ICTs increases the risk to international peace and security. 7. Terrorist groups use ICTs to communicate, collect information, recruit, organize, plan and coordinate attacks, promote their ideas and actions and solicit funding. If such groups acquire attack tools, they could carry out disruptive ICT activities. 8. States are concerned that embedding harmful hidden functions in ICTs could be used in ways that would affect secure and reliable ICT use and the ICT supply chain for products and services, erode trust in commerce and damage national security. 9. The expanding use of ICTs in critical infrastructures and industrial control systems creates new possibilities for disruption. The rapid increase in the use of mobile communications devices, web services, social networks and cloud computing services expands the challenges to security. 10. Different levels of capacity for ICT security among different States can increase vulnerability in an interconnected world. Malicious actors exploit networks no matter where they are located. These vulnerabilities are amplified by disparities in national law, regulations and practices related to the use of ICTs. II. Building cooperation for a peaceful, secure, resilient and open ICT environment 11. Member States have repeatedly affirmed the need for cooperative action against threats resulting from the malicious use of ICTs. Further progress in cooperation at the international level will require an array of actions to promote a peaceful, secure, open and cooperative ICT environment. Consideration should be given to cooperative measures that could enhance international peace, stability and security. These include common understandings on the application of relevant international law and derived norms, rules and principles of responsible behaviour of States. 12. While States must lead in addressing these challenges, effective cooperation would benefit from the appropriate participation of the private sector and civil society. 13. The United Nations should play a leading role in promoting dialogue among Member States to develop common understandings on the security of and in the use of ICTs, encourage regional efforts, promote confidence-building and transparency measures and support capacity-building and the dissemination of best practices. 14. In addition to work in the United Nations system, valuable efforts are being made by international organizations and regional entities such as the African Union; the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Regional Forum; the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum; the Council of Europe; the Economic Community of West African States; the European Union; the League of Arab States; the Organization of American States; the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE); and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. Future work on security in the use of ICTs should take these efforts into account. 13-37166 7