National strategy for the protection of Switzerland against cyber risks 2018-2022 specialisation of criminal activities in cyberspace must be expected. Cyber espionage: Cyber espionage is an activity for gaining unauthorised access to information in cyberspace for political, military or economic purposes. It is carried out by both state and non-state actors. The attackers focus on companies as well as governmental, social and international institutions. The Swiss economy is one of the most innovative in the world, and many international companies have their headquarters or important data centres here. Switzerland is also home to many international organisations and often hosts international negotiations. This makes Switzerland an attractive target for cyber espionage. The impact can vary greatly depending on the type and volume of data the attackers gain access to. The impact is usually not immediately apparent, since political and economic disadvantages arise only when the attackers make use of the knowledge they have gained. Cyber espionage will become even more attractive, given that it is an efficient way of gathering information. Attackers have developed methods to stay undetected as long as possible after the networks have been breached. Since Switzerland is highly dependent on foreign manufacturers in regard to its ICT, there remains the risk that these producers, in cooperation with the intelligence services of their countries, deliberately leave vulnerabilities open for the purpose of espionage. Cyber sabotage and cyber terrorism: Cyber sabotage refers to activities aiming to disrupt or destroy the reliable and error-free functioning of ICT in cyberspace; depending on the type of sabotage and the target attacked, this may also have physical effects. The motivation for such acts can vary considerably. For example, frustrated employees may decide to sabotage an organisation's ICT. If an act of sabotage is carried out by perpetrators with terrorist motives, it is referred to as cyber terrorism. Cyber sabotage and cyber terrorism aim not only to achieve the greatest possible damage, but also to intimidate and to demonstrate power with the intention of destabilising an organisation or even society as a whole. While various acts of sabotage have been observed internationally, including against the energy supply of states, no major cases have come to light in Switzerland so far. However, should Switzerland or organisations in or from Switzerland become a target of state or non-state actors with the necessary capabilities for political reasons, the probability of such an event would increase considerably. The potential damage is very great. The relevance of this threat will continue to increase with the progressive digitalisation of society and the economy. The increasing digital networking of physical devices via the internet of things also permits new forms of digital manipulation – again with a direct impact on the physical world. Disinformation and propaganda: The threat posed by targeted spreading of false information or of information illegally obtained through cyber attacks with the aim of discrediting political, military or civil society actors has become increasingly prominent. Such activities have been observed in various countries in the run-up to important elections. In Switzerland as well, the possibility must be considered that state or non-state actors may attempt to undermine the confidence of citizens in the state and institutions. Given that the importance of social media as a source of information continues to grow, it must also be assumed that these channels are used for propaganda, with an extremely nontransparent mix of false information, political arguments and stolen information. Cyber attacks in conflicts: While a war waged exclusively in cyberspace (cyber war) is currently considered to be an unrealistic scenario, it has been seen that cyber attacks of all kinds are used as a means of warfare in various conflicts. Typically, these are hybrid conflicts in which political, economic and criminal means are used in addition to military force. One aim of hybrid warfare is to disguise responsibilities in a conflict. Cyber attacks are a proven instrument for this purpose, since they are difficult to attribute unambiguously, and since they cost comparatively little, have an immediate impact, can be employed over arbitrarily large distances, and allow political-military effects to be achieved in the grey area below the threshold of an actual war. The considerable investments made by many states to protect and actively defend against cyber threats underscore the importance of cyber resources in conflicts. Accordingly, the importance of targeted cyber attacks for strategic purposes is expected to increase further. In 4