section 1 Global security environment the uncertainty in security is continuing to increase as transnational and non-military threats proliferate on top of the ever existing possibility of regional disputes triggered by traditional conflict factors. Countries around the world are strengthening cooperative international efforts in order to contribute to regional stability and global peace by jointly responding to various security threats, such as nuclear and missile threats, terrorism, cyber-attacks and infectious diseases. 1. Possibility of Regional Disputes Triggered by Traditional Conflict factors Traditional conflict factors such as territorial claims and religious and ethnic variances are presenting a continuous threat to security worldwide. In East Asia where the ‘Asia-Pacific Rebalance Strategy’ by the U.S. and China’s ‘New Type of Major Power Relations’1) are in conflict, maritime jurisdiction disputes including the South China Sea dispute are ongoing. While China is continuing its efforts to strengthen its maritime jurisdictional status by taking actions such as constructing artificial islands in the South China Sea, the U.S. is strengthening military cooperation with its allies in the region, calling for freedom of navigation. Even after the ruling in July 2016 by the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) at The Hague that Beijing has no legal basis to claim historical rights in the South China Sea, disputes between the parties, including the Philippines, China and the U.S., have not abated. Nuclear and missile provocations by North Korea is a major factor of disrupting security in the region. In 2016, North Korea carried out two nuclear tests and a string of missile tests including long-range ballistic missiles and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBM), escalating security concerns in the region. In Europe, the refugee crisis has emerged as a major problem. With thousands of refugees from Syria and North Africa pouring into Europe without receiving the proper refugee status, the fundamental principle of integration pursued by the EU based on the Schengen Agreement2) is facing a serious challenge. In September 2015, the EU announced measures to respond to the refugee crisis, including 1) a doctrine proposed by Chinese President Xi Jinping during the U.S.-China bilateral summit held in June 2013, which calls for mutual respect when dealing with issues touching the core national interests of the two countries or important strategic issues. 2) an agreement guaranteeing the free movement of persons between eU member states, signed in 1985, near the town of Schengen, Luxemburg, by five countries – Germany, France, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands-. the agreement was partially amended in 1990 and was enacted in 1995. 8 Chapter 1 Changes and Challenges in the Security environment