FEDERAL CYBERSECURITY RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIC PLAN (2019) technologies are fundamentally different from their conventional counterparts, it is imperative to address potential security flaws as the devices and systems are designed. Challenges Future quantum technologies should be secure by design, from hardware to software and including the protocols that link quantum systems. Since debugging errors in quantum software and hardware is highly nontrivial due to quantum mechanical effects, correct-by-construction implementation is desirable. Conversely, because quantum technologies hold promise for achieving a higher level of security beyond classical computing limits, understanding quantum capabilities and finding ways to circumvent their fundamental limits have far-reaching implications. Below are the overarching challenges: • Securing quantum software. Trusted and assured software stacks for controlling quantum computers, processors, and devices are critical because, unlike the conventional software testing process, the states of quantum programs cannot be directly examined for potential errors. Quantum programs that operate directly on a quantum device should utilize the laws of quantum mechanics to prevent illegal operations. Computational effects of quantum programs are presently unknown. • Securing quantum hardware. Testing and debugging hardware components are difficult tasks due to quantum mechanical effects. Current knowledge of side-channel attacks on quantum devices is confined to quantum key distribution (QKD). A broader look at the issue of general quantum hardware is desirable. Moreover, as quantum systems will likely be built from different types of quantum hardware platforms, the resulting heterogeneous platforms and their interconnects are likely to be targets of attacks. • Designing efficient quantum cryptographic protocols. Efficient protocols (beyond QKD) are still elusive for designing quantum information, communication, and computation with security requirements stronger than classical settings, and systems must be robust to noise and feasible to implement. Composability of quantum and/or classical resources is not well understood. Classical proof techniques for establishing security of protocols do not always carry over to the quantum settings. • Anticipating quantum attacks and countermeasures. Known methods of attack perpetrated by quantum technologies on current systems are relatively few, e.g., Shor’s algorithm and attacks on QKD systems. Countermeasures against quantum attacks are also scarce, e.g., deviceindependent quantum information. R&D Goals • Design type-safe quantum programming languages for controlling quantum processors and for interacting with quantum memories. Understand the side effects of programming a quantum computer, especially in the presence of quantum effects and noise. Design and build tools to analyze quantum programs akin to formal method techniques for classical software and protocols. • Explore new theoretical and experimental methods to probe quantum states, quantum processes, and their quantum properties to diagnose and analyze hardware for its security properties. Find algorithms and experimental techniques to efficiently test and evaluate quantum hardware or devices for functional correctness. • Draft standards for quantum-resistant cryptography while observing the recommendations of NIST and the National Security Agency. Devise a plan for implementing quantum-resistant cryptography while studying its potential vulnerabilities. Integrate classical, quantum-resistant, and quantum cryptographic techniques. Design, analyze, and test quantum security protocols, – 14 –