Development and functional relationship Services and will depend on the balance of equipment or service to be provided. Section 3 – Evolving functions 3.5. The single Services have historically conducted EMA independently, even when operating as part of a joint force. Recent UK operations have focused EMA on tactical electronic defence, particularly on counterinsurgency and stabilisation operations. 31 However, our adversaries have also been developing wide-ranging EMA capabilities and employing them operationally. 3 3.6. Recent efforts have concentrated on developing cyber forces and capability, and while significant progress has been made, development is often conducted along single-Service lines, with the exception of offensive cyber. This is not a problem confined solely to the UK. Few North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) members have developed a coherent and comprehensive cyber approach and NATO has yet to incorporate ‘cyber’ into its definitions and terms. While achieving consensus on the concept of CEMA is difficult, a debate may start with the examination of the sub functions of core CEMA and how their scope interacts with each other; these being EMA and cyber activities, and their collective management. 3.7. Electromagnetic activities. Operationally there are four EMA that are key elements: electronic warfare; signals intelligence; spectrum management; and communications. These functions are integral parts and interlinked in our operations. a. Electronic warfare. This is defined as: military action that exploits electromagnetic energy to provide situational awareness and achieve offensive and defensive effects. 32 It is made up of four elements. 31 Tactical operational activities in Iraq and Afghanistan have been supported by a wide variety of electronic countermeasures (ECM). A key function has been the jamming, deception and neutralisation of remote-controlled improvised explosive devices. ECM is a form of active electronic defence. 32 NATOTerm. 30 JDN 1/18