experienced physical and sexual abuse than the general population.219 Research on offline sexual abuse is also important in understanding cyberenticement.220 In research on juvenile sex abusers, exposure to intra-family violence appears to have important predictive value. Children who witness and experience violence including domestic violence seem to be at a particularly high risk of engaging in sexual abuse conduct in the future. It is possible that these “experiences of physical violence and the breaching of personal boundaries by assault may in some way give permission for the young person to go on to inflict sexual violence on another child”.221 Studies on bullying in general demonstrate a cluster of behavioural problems in bullies, including aggression. A 2011 comparison of traditional and online bullies found that people who bully offline tend to resort to cyberbullying in order to amplify the impact on their victims.222 Research indicates that cyber-bullies exhibit poor psychosocial skills that result in evident problems at school and other behavioural deficits, which may also at least in part explain the dynamics by which victims become aggressors.223 Poor social functioning results in bullying especially when more vulnerable targets are encountered. Offenders may also tend to see aggression as an acceptable solution for problems and be more likely to use drugs and alcohol.224 Those who suffer from cyberbullying and also engage in bullying others are shown to be the heaviest substance abusers.225 Likewise, victims of solicitation are, on average, twice as likely to report substance use.226 219 P. 7. Quayle, E., Sinclair, R. In Quayle, E., Ribisl, K. (eds.), 2012. 220 Wolak, J., 2013. Commentary at the Informal Expert Group Meeting on the Effects of Information and Communication Technologies on the Abuse and Exploitation of Children. Vienna. September 23, 2013 through September 26, 2013. 221 Vizard, E., 2013. “Practitioner Review: The victims and juvenile perpetrators of child sexual abuse –assessment and intervention”, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 54:507. 222 Sontag, L. M., et al., 2011. “Traditional and Cyber Aggressors and Victims: A Comparison of Psychosocial Characteristics”, Journal of Youth and Adolescence 40:392-404. 223 See e.g. Görzig, A., 2011. 224 The Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University, 2008. P. 28. 225 See The Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University, 2008. P. 42-43. 226 Mitchell, K. J., Ybarra, M., Finkelhor, D., 2007. “The Relative Importance of Online Victimization in Understanding Depression, Delinquency, and Substance Use”, Child Maltreatment 12: 320. Technological sophistication One typology of child sexual abuse material offenders is based on their level of technical expertise. Here, the least aggressive offenders are “simple viewers, who are primarily driven by curiosity and rarely download, save or trade child sexual abuse material with others.” Next on the continuum are “open traders”, motivated by the desire to add to their collections of child sexual abuse material. Open traders use tight security, though not as extreme as “closed traders”, who are more committed to guaranteeing their continued access to such material. Closed traders may try to eliminate undercover law enforcement agents by insisting that new traders in a community site upload child sexual abuse material before they are allowed full access. Closed traders tend to form close bonds with other child sexual abuse material offenders with whom they engage in online forums and other virtual communities. Finally, the “experts” make up the most committed set of child sexual abuse material offenders in this typology. These offenders tend to have long histories of active engagement in child sexual abuse material possession and trading and are highly skilled and diligent about security measures in order to evade detection.227 As concerns other offences, cyberstalkers are typically highly sophisticated technical users, deploying the same tactics that criminals use to commit other cybercrimes, including identity theft or hacking. These techniques enable them to obtain private information about their targets, such as home addresses and dates of birth. Cyberstalkers develop expertise on using such information together with other online sources to accumulate yet more information about their victims. Research on cyberbullying reveals associations between cyberbullying, technological proficiency and the amount of time spent online, suggesting that bullies may also have the potential to employ more aggressive stalking techniques, through an ability to make maximum use of online material in the targeting of others.228 227 Aiken, M., Moran M., Berry, M., 2011. Child abuse material and the Internet: Cyberpsychology of online child related sex offending. Paper presented at the 29th Meeting of the INTERPOL Specialist Group on Crimes against Children Lyons, France, 5-7 September 2011. Available at http://goo.gl/UQSZ52; see also, D. Greenfield, Clinical Treatment of Internet and Digitally-enabled Compulsive Behaviour (2010). Available at http://www.virtual-addiction.com/ pages/documents/ ClinicalTreatmentof InternetSpainChapter_000.pdf. 228 Wade, A., Beran, T., 2011. 32 STUDY ON THE EFFECTS OF NEW INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES ON THE ABUSE AND EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN