“cyber-sex” dens, children can be sexually abused by an adult while images of the abuse are streamed live on the Internet, with access to the stream being commonly purchased via credit card. This form of child sexual abuse material requires only Internet connectivity, a computer with a built-in camera, a mobile phone or other mobile device with video functionality, or a detachable webcam. The live show format enables remote viewers to feel connected to the sexual activity, particularly as they can simulate active participation in the abuse by, for instance, directing the conduct of the people ­featured.129 Live images of abuse may also be recorded for future distribution in order to generate maximum profit. Victimization risk factors Risk factors represent circumstances that may increase the likelihood of child victimization for certain offences. Such factors may be external, relating to the child’s family and social environment, or concern characteristics or behaviour of the child victim himself or herself. Risk factors do not correspond to certainties, and are derived only retrospectively from observed associations between such factors and victimization outcomes across child cohorts. In particular, risk factors may be offset by protective factors that correspond to circumstances that decrease the likelihood of victimization, including through intervention in otherwise risky situations. Gender and sexual orientation Research indicates that girls account for the majority of victims of child abuse and exploitation, although boys are increasingly at risk as well.130 In a sample of nearly 250,000 images of child sexual abuse material submitted to the Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre in the United Kingdom between 2005 and 2009, four times as many images featured girls as compared to boys.131 More recent figures from the IWF show that up to 76 per cent of sexual abuse images on the Internet featured girls in 2013, while 10 per cent featured boys and 9 per cent featured both genders.132 With respect to the commercial sexual abuse and exploitation of children, the International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates that 1.2 million children are trafficked per year and 1.8 million children are exploited annually in the global sex trade, of which about two-thirds are female. In cases of children abused and exploited in the travel and tourism industries, girls are again most frequently victimized.133 Increasing attention is paid, however, to male victims of child sexual exploitation. The United States Department of State Trafficking in Persons Report of 2008, for example, identified male victims as a topic of special import. Noting that both ILO and UNICEF have found that male victims make up only two percent of documented child victims of commercial sexual exploitation, the report suggested that male victimization might be more widespread than reported, especially in light of the circumstance that boys may often feel reluctant to reveal their abuse because of a double stigma associated with suffering abuse and same-sex sexual relations.134 With respect to cyberenticement, up to 99 per cent of solicitations are made by men, mostly (43 per cent) youth or young adults, and are overwhelmingly (70 to 75 per cent) addressed to girls, with 14 to 17-year-olds being particularly at risk.135 With respect to user-generated content such as “sexting”, girls may be disproportionately victimized. A 2012 study described the gender dynamics involved in sexting as follows: “Sexting is not a gender-neutral practice; it is shaped by the gender dynamics of the peer group in which, primarily, boys harass girls, and it is exacerbated by the gendered norms of popular culture, family and school that fail to recognise the problem or to support IWF, 2014. P. 6. ILO, 2002. Every Child Counts. New Global Estimates on Child Labour. 134 U.S. Department of State, 2008. Trafficking in Persons Report. P. 9. Available at http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/105501.pdf. 135 The Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University, 2008. Enhancing Child Safety & Online Technologies: Final Report of the Internet Safety Technical Task Force to the Multi-State Working Group on Social Networking of State Attorneys General of the United States. P. 20. Retrieved from http://cyber.law. harvard.edu/sites/cyber.law.harvard.edu/files/ISTTF_Final_ Report.pdf. 132 133 U.S. Department of State, 2007. P. 23; see also CEOP, 2013. Paragraphs 24, 33. 130 See Cooper, S., Medical Analysis of Child Pornography. In S. Cooper et al. (eds.), 2005. Medical, Social and Legal Aspects of Child Sexual Exploitation. But see CEOP, 2013. Paragraph 29 (Observing a marked shift to fewer boy victims and more and younger girl victims in an analysis of an albeit small sample of recent offences in the United Kingdom). 131 Quayle, E., Jones, T., 2011. “Sexualized Images of Children on the Internet”, Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment 23:14. 129 II. Evaluating the problem  23