another. The DNS is hierarchically organised with the top level consisting of root servers and
top-level domain (TLD) servers, and under these a large number of DNS servers located
around the world which. The DNS ensures that accurate information may be found about any
address at any time, from anywhere, with confidence as to its veracity.
The DNS includes three types of TLDs: generic (gTLD), country code (ccTLD), and
sponsored (sTLD). gTLDs include domains that can be obtained by anyone (.com, .info, .net,
and .org). Since 2014 many other gTLDs have been added like .pub, .بازار
(bazaar), .rentals, .ngo, or .游戏 (game). sTLDs are limited to a specific group. For example,
the sTLD ‘.aero’ is open for registration only for the air-transport industry. ccTLDs designate
specific countries or territories (.uk, .cn, .in).
Status of governance mechanisms for the DNS
The organization and management of DNS is based on the Internet standards and
recommendations (Requests for Comments adopted by the IETF). For country domains, the
most relevant is the ISO 3166 standard, ‘Codes for the representation of names of countries
and their subdivisions’. ICANN provides overall coordination of the DNS by establishing
agreements and accrediting registries and registrars. For each gTLD there is one registry that
maintains an address list. For example, the .com gTLD is managed by Verisign. Final users
purchase specific ‘second level’ domain names (the part in front of the dot in each TLD)
from registrars. ICANN also decides on the introduction of new gTLDs (such
as .city, .wine, .christianity).
The policy development function for the DNS is within the Country Code Names Supporting
Organisation (CNSO) and the Generic Names Supporting Organization (GNSO) and their
councils. The main dispute resolution mechanism for the DNS is the Uniform Domain-Name
Dispute-Resolution Policy (UDRP). Since the introduction of the UDRP in 1999, the World
Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Arbitration and Mediation Center has handled 22
500 cases. In addition to the WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center, there are four other
regional UDRP service providers.
The high policy relevance of the DNS came into sharper public focus with the introduction of
the new gTLDs. For example, it opened the policy debate on the right to register the domain
‘.amazon’ with claims from the company Amazon that owns the trademark and from
countries in Amazon basin. Another debate has been conducted on the ‘closed generic’
gTLDs – dictionary words not available for public use; for example, Amazon's application
for .book. Some new domains such as ‘.doctor’ or ‘.lawyer’ could run the risk of misleading
Internet users should individuals who – for example – do not have necessary medical and/or
legal qualifications register under these domains.
11