19. Importantly, some cyber activities, such as cyber espionage, do not amount to a breach of territorial sovereignty, and hence to a violation of international law.Footnote 16 They may however be prohibited under the national laws of a State.Footnote 17 20. It is possible that a series of cyber activities could lead to significant harmful effects that violate the rule of territorial sovereignty. This is the case even if the individual cyber activity on its own would not reach this threshold. 21. Canada will assess whether a violation of territorial sovereignty has occurred on a case-by-case basis. As noted below, Canada believes further State practice and opinio juris will help clarify the scope of customary law in this area over time. In any event, Canada considers that the existence of varied approaches to assessing the legality of cyber activities should not prevent States from agreeing that particular malicious cyber activities are internationally wrongful acts. Non-Intervention 22. State cyber activities may breach the foundational international law prohibition of intervention in the internal or external affairs of another State. This would be the case where both of the following conditions are met: the activities aim to interfere with the internal or external affairs of the affected State involving its inherently sovereign functions, known as domaine réservéFootnote 18; and the activities would cause coercive effects that deprive, compel, or impose an outcome on the affected State on matters in which it has free choice.Footnote 19 23. In its most serious form, coercion may arise through the threat or use of force but could also arise where a cyber activity is designed to deprive the affected State of its freedom of choice. Coercion must be distinguished from other conduct such as public diplomacy, criticism, persuasion, and propaganda. 24. An example of a prohibited intervention would be a malicious cyber activity that hacks and disables a State’s election commission days before an election, preventing a significant number of citizens from voting, and ultimately influencing the election outcome. Another example would be a malicious cyber activity that disrupts the functioning of a major gas pipeline, compelling the affected State to change its position in bilateral negotiations surrounding an international energy accord. 25. Whether or not a cyber activity meets the threshold for a violation of the rule on territorial sovereignty or rises to the level of a violation of the rule against intervention will be determined on a case-by-case basis. As with the thresholds for violations of territorial sovereignty, Canada believes that further State practice and opinio juris will help clarify the thresholds for the rule of non-intervention, and the scope of customary law in this area over time. Due Diligence 4/14