Development and functional relationship CEMA provides a coordinating function through battlespace spectrum management (BSM) to enable effective use of the electromagnetic spectrum (EMS). The end-state is to enable the commander freedom of movement in the EME. d. Communications. Increasingly, military communications (both human and machine) face external demands for EMS to be released for commercial use. Technological advances have led to an increase in spectrum-dependent systems for gathering and transferring information with force elements increasingly reliant on detailed, immersive graphics and videos, all of which need high-bandwidth communication channels. Communications needs to be coordinated with other EMS users, through CEMA, to gain spectrum understanding and to meet operational needs while ensuring that users in the UK or host nation are not adversely affected. 3 3.8. Cyber activities. Cyber operations are described as the planning and synchronisation of activities in, and through, cyberspace to enable freedom of manoeuvre and to achieve military objectives. 38 With the growth of mobile and wireless connectivity it is increasingly important to consider EMA when conducting these operations. Cyber operations are categorised into four distinct roles. 39 a. Offensive cyber operations. These are defined as: activities that project power to achieve military objectives in, or through, cyberspace. b. Defensive cyber operations. These are defined as: active and passive measures to preserve the ability to use cyberspace. c. Cyber intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance. This is defined as: intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance activities in, and through, friendly, neutral and adversary cyberspace to build understanding. 38 Cyber Primer, 2nd Edition. 39 Ibid. 32 JDN 1/18