• Participating actively in international police cooperation in the field of cybercrime. Norway is committed to cooperation through Europol, Interpol and Nordic mechanisms to support the exchange of expertise and information and capacity-sharing. Norway will give ongoing consideration to the need for local liaison officers in major international Europol and Interpol projects, and second specialist personnel for defined periods. Virtual ICT services and cross-border dissemination of data and software are providing safe havens for cybercriminals, and Norway will continuously evaluate the need for closer cooperation with other countries to shut down such havens. • Strengthening and further developing measures to combat online radicalisation and recruitment. To prevent radicalisation and violent extremism, Norway will work with other states to develop measures targeting platforms that spread extremist propaganda. Norway will collaborate closely with countries facing similar challenges, and ensure that its own measures meet high international standards. • Participating actively in arenas for international exchange of information and experience and development of robust solutions for the prevention and combating of cybercrime. Participation in such forums facilitates the sharing of experience that is valuable in Norway’s policy development and efforts to combat cybercrime. Norway’s experiences may likewise be helpful to other countries. Relevant international arenas include the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), the Council of Europe, the EU, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), ENISA and Eurojust. Cyberspace as a security policy issue Norway must be protected against serious digital threats from state and non-state actors. Freedom of action in cyberspace must be secured by means of both national measures and international cooperation, particularly within the framework of NATO, the OSCE and the UN. NATO is an important forum for the exchange of experience and expertise, development of common standards and joint exercises and training to enable allies to operate together during crises. It is also key in the ongoing development of cyberspace as an operational domain. The OSCE is working on “ground rules” and confidence-building measures, while discussions in the UN context are focused on the application of international law and, increasingly, the dilemmas and challenges raised by the development of cyberweapons. Norway will pursue national and international measures to protect its security policy interests, including the following: • Continue to develop strong national safeguards against cyber threats, not least through broad civilianmilitary and public-private cooperation. Norway will invest further in intelligence. A prerequisite for robust protection against digital attacks in peacetime, crisis and war is the ability to detect, resist and manage threats, including through relevant countermeasures in accordance with international law. A further key factor is capacity to counter digital attacks within the framework of international law. Cyberattacks lose some of their utility value when the opponent is prevented from achieving the desired result. • Improve digital-attack defence capabilities in cooperation with likeminded countries. Priority will be given to NATO and bilateral and multilateral collaboration with close allies. Norway will protect Norwegian forces deployed in international operations against digital attacks, and will work with partner countries when this serves Norwegian interests. Norway will reinforce NATO’s collective capability to manage digital threats by developing national capabilities, engaging in multilateral cooperation between allies and supporting NATO processes to improve robustness, exploit technological opportunities and enhance crisis management capacity. Norway will also help raise awareness of the dilemmas and challenges identified in the development of military cyberspace capabilities, including questions such as arms control, export control, delimitation of state and non-state actors, and attribution. • Explore the application of international law in cyberspace. Although there is an international consensus that international law also applies in cyberspace, there is a need for clearer international agreement as to how and when international law applies. The work of the United Nations Governmental Group of Experts (UNGGE) and the NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence (CCD COE) in Tallinn are important in this regard. 9