Countering cyber threats to the UK and deterring our adversaries 29. The threats we face in and through cyberspace have grown in intensity, complexity and severity in recent years. Cyber attacks against the UK are conducted by an expanding range of state actors, criminal groups (sometimes acting at the direction of states or with their implicit approval) and activists for the purpose of espionage, commercial gain, sabotage and disinformation. Such attacks cause significant financial loss, intellectual property theft, psychological distress, disruption to services and assets and risks to our critical national infrastructure, democratic institutions and media. They can also damage investor and consumer confidence and amplify existing inequalities and harms. During the COVID-19 pandemic the shadow pandemic of gender-based violence was compounded by online attacks. Ransomware attacks continue to become more sophisticated and damaging. While the overall level of cyber threat from hostile actors during the COVID-19 pandemic has remained constant, they have exploited it as an opportunity and shifted their cyber operations to steal vaccine and medical research, and to undermine other nations already hampered by the crisis. The growing dependence on digital technologies for remote working and online transactions has also increased exposure to risks. Alongside this, digital divides have also created uneven access to online services and exposed people to online abuse and harms due to limited digital literacy and awareness of the cyber security measures we can all take to stay secure online.12 12 13 30. Government has taken steps to counter these growing threats. Significant investment in our intelligence capabilities has increased our understanding of the threat and enabled us to conduct more effective covert counter campaigns. We have developed an integrated law enforcement response to cyber crime, led by the National Crime Agency (NCA) and dedicated cyber teams within regional organised crime units and local police forces across England, Wales, Northern Ireland and Scotland. This has enhanced our operational and investigative edge over cyber criminals and other adversaries. The government is also strengthening the security of the increasing number of digital identity solutions, by developing the UK digital identity and attributes trust framework.13 This will also help to tackle crimes that involve misuse of identity data. And the NCA’s Cyber Choices programme is helping people to make more informed choices, diverting them from criminality to use their cyber skills in a positive and legal way. 31. We have invested significantly in our offensive cyber capabilities, first through the National Offensive Cyber Programme, and more recently through the establishment of the National Cyber Force (NCF). The NCF draws together personnel from the Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), the Ministry of Defence (MOD), the Secret Intelligence Service (SIS, also known as MI6) and the Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, under one unified command for the first time. It is operating in and through cyberspace to keep the country safe and to protect and promote the UK’s interests at home and abroad. NCSC, CyberAware DCMS, UK digital identity and attributes trust framework (2021) 24 National Cyber Strategy