Discussions 16. Some States expressed concern over the development or use of ICT capabilities for military purposes in a manner inconsistent with the objectives of maintaining international peace and security. Ot h ers expressed similar concerns but recognised the legitimate right of states to develop and use ICT capabilities for military purposes. Some voiced concern that the characteristics of the ICT environment may encourage unilateral measures rather than the settlement of disputes by peaceful means. Concerns were also raised about stockpiling of vulnerabilities as well as a lack of transparency and defined processes for disclosing them, the exploitation of harmful hidden functions, the integrity of global ICT supply chains and ensuring data security. Concerns were raised by some States that ICTs could be used to interfere in their internal affairs, including by means of information operations and disinformation campaigns. Pursuit of increasing automation and autonomy in ICT operations was put forward as a specific concern, as were actions that could lead to the reduction or disruption of connectivity, unintended escalation or effects that negatively impact third parties. Some States also noted the lack of clarity regarding the responsibilities of the private sector as a concern in and of itself. 17. States empha sized that measures to promote responsible State behaviour should remain technology-neutral, underscoring that it is the misuse of technologies, not the technologies themselves, that is of concern. States recognized that even as technological advances and new applications may offer development opportunities, they may also expand attack surfaces, amplify vulnerabilities in the ICT environment or be leveraged for novel malicious activities. Particular technological trends and developments were highlighted in this regard, including progress in machine learning and quantum computing; the ubiquity of connected devices (”Internet of Things“); new ways to store and access data through distributed ledgers and cloud computing; and the expansion of big data and digitized personal data. Conclusions 18. States agreed that they are increasingly concerned about the implications of the malicious use of ICTs for the maintenance of international peace and security, and subsequently for human rights and development. Harmful ICT incidents are increasing in frequency, precision and sophistication, and are constantly evolving and diversifying. Increasing connectivity and reliance on ICTs can bring unintended risks, making societies more vulnerable to malicious ICT activities. Despite the invaluable benefits of ICTs for humanity, their malicious use can have significant and far-reaching negative impacts. 19. States agreed that the continuing increase in incidents involving the malicious use of ICTs by State and non-State actors, including proxies, is a disturbing trend. Some non-State actors have demonstrated ICT capabilities previously only available to States, and concern was expressed that these capabilities could be used for terrorist or criminal purposes. 20. States also agreed that any use of ICTs by States in a manner inconsistent with their Charter commitment to live together in peace with one another as good neighbours, as well as with their other obligations under international law, undermines trust and stability between States, which may increase the risk of misperception and the likelihood of future conflicts between States. 21. States agreed that there are potentially devastating humanitarian consequences of attacks malicious cyber activities on critical infrastructure (CI) and critica l information infrastructure (CII) supporting essential services to the public such as, but not limited to, medical facilities, 4