A. “A Brave New World”3 Cyberspace is a nebulous digital or electronic realm characterized by the use of electronics and electromagnetics to store, modify and exchange data via networked systems and associated physical infrastructures. Not a “place” per se, it has been defined as “the online world of computer networks”,4 but has been more aptly likened to the “human psyche translated to the internet”.5 However it is understood, cyberspace has transformed the world and our way of being. It has created a “virtual” space parallel to the “real”, physical world. And, although not actually real, that revolutionary world is itself about to be revolutionized as virtual reality (VR) prepares to render further transformations, no doubt with great implications for the “real” world,6 and, indeed, for what “real” means.7 Information and communications technologies (ICTs) allow for information to be accessed, business conducted, professional and personal connections grown and maintained, and governments engaged and governance expanded. Cyberspace and ICTs hold out huge growth potential in practically every walk of life.8 With this greater openness, interconnectedness and dependency also comes greater risk: while ICT has created new and legitimate opportunities, spaces and markets, those very same opportunities, spaces and markets are rife for criminal exploitation. Individual cybercriminals and organized criminal groups are increasingly using digital technologies to facilitate their illegal activities, be they the enabling of traditional crimes, such as theft and fraud, or the rendering of new crimes, such as attacks on computer hardware and software. Even in countries characterized by high rates of unemployment, wage inequality and poverty, cybercrime is accessible, easy and cheap. Essentially, anyone with access to the internet can become a cybercriminal. Moreover, with the emergence of hacking tools, such as exploit-kits, neither computer expertise nor technological knowledge is longer necessary.9 People in developing countries, often unable to find legitimate work in their domestic market, see cyberspace, with more than 3.488 billion internet users worldwide,10 as a market ripe for exploitation.11 Governments are coming to recognize both the harm that has been caused, as well as the ever-growing gravity of the threat cybercrime, and are working on forming a collaborative response at both the domestic and international levels. That collaborative, international response to cybercrime cannot come soon enough: cybercrime is on the rise, and the opportunities and gains are increasingly alluring. In 2014, more than 348 million identities were exposed When identity thieves hacked several trusted institutions, and 594 million persons are affected by cybercrime globally.12 US$1 trillion in the United States Estimates of losses from intellectual property and data theft go as high as US$1 trillion in the United States alone.13 Page 16 | Chapter 1 | § B. Phenomenon & Dimensions of Cybercrime Table of Contents